References to Pilate outside the Bible

Josephus

Wars of the Jews

Book 2 Chapter 9

Pilate Brings images into Jerusalem

2. Now Pilate, who was sent as procurator into Judea by Tiberius, sent by night those images of Caesar that are called ensigns into Jerusalem. This excited a very among great tumult among the Jews when it was day; for those that were near them were astonished at the sight of them, as indications that their laws were trodden under foot; for those laws do not permit any sort of image to bebrought into the city. Nay, besides the indignation which the citizens had themselves at this procedure, a vast number of people came running out of the country. These came zealously to Pilate to Cesarea, and besought him to carry those ensigns out ofJerusalem, and to preserve them their ancient laws inviolable;but upon Pilate's denial of their request, they fell (9) downprostrate upon the ground, and continued immovable in thatposture for five days and as many nights.

3. On the next day Pilate sat upon his tribunal, in the openmarket-place, and called to him the multitude, as desirous to give them an answer; and then gave a signal to the soldiers, that they should all by agreement at once encompass the Jews with their weapons; so the band of soldiers stood round about the Jewsin three ranks. The Jews were under the utmost consternation atthat unexpected sight. Pilate also said to them that they shouldbe cut in pieces, unless they would admit of Caesar's images, and gave intimation to the soldiers to draw their naked swords.Hereupon the Jews, as it were at one signal, fell down in vastnumbers together, and exposed their necks bare, and cried outthat they were sooner ready to be slain, than that their lawshould be transgressed. Hereupon Pilate was greatly surprised at their prodigious superstition, and gave order that the ensigns should be presently carried out of Jerusalem.

More Disturbances

4. After this he raised another disturbance, by expending thatsacred treasure which is called Corban (10) upon aqueducts,whereby he brought water from the distance of four hundredfurlongs. At this the multitude had indignation; and when Pilatewas come to Jerusalem, they came about his tribunal, and made aclamor at it. Now when he was apprized aforehand of thisdisturbance, he mixed his own soldiers in their armor with themultitude, and ordered them to conceal themselves under thehabits of private men, and not indeed to use their swords, butwith their staves to beat those that made the clamor. He thengave the signal from his tribunal [to do as he had bidden them].Now the Jews were so sadly beaten, that many of them perished bythe stripes they received, and many of them perished as troddento death by themselves; by which means the multitude wasastonished at the calamity of those that were slain, and heldtheir peace.

Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews

Book 18, CHAPTER 3.

The Images into Jerusalem

1. But now Pilate, the procurator of Judea, removed the army from Cesarea to Jerusalem, to take their winter quarters there, inorder to abolish the Jewish laws. So he introduced Caesar'seffigies, which were upon the ensigns, and brought them into thecity; whereas our law forbids us the very making of images; on which account the former procurators were wont to make theirentry into the city with such ensigns as had not those ornaments. Pilate was the first who brought those images to Jerusalem, andset them up there; which was done without the knowledge of thepeople, because it was done in the night time; but as soon asthey knew it, they came in multitudes to Cesarea, and interceded with Pilate many days that he would remove the images; and whenhe would not grant their requests, because it would tend to the injury of Caesar, while yet they persevered in their request, onthe sixth day he ordered his soldiers to have their weapons privately, while he came and sat upon his judgment-seat, whichseat was so prepared in the open place of the city, that itconcealed the army that lay ready to oppress them; and when the Jews petitioned him again, he gave a signal to the soldiers to encompass them routed, and threatened that their punishment should be no less than immediate death, unless they would leaveoff disturbing him, and go their ways home. But they threwthemselves upon the ground, and laid their necks bare, and saidthey would take their death very willingly, rather than thewisdom of their laws should be transgressed; upon which Pilate was deeply affected with their firm resolution to keep their laws inviolable, and presently commanded the images to be carried backfrom Jerusalem to Cesarea.

2. But Pilate undertook to bring a current of water to Jerusalem,and did it with the sacred money, and derived the origin of the stream from the distance of two hundred furlongs. However, the Jews (8) were not pleased with what had been done about this water; and many ten thousands of the people got together, and made a clamor against him, and insisted that he should leave offthat design. Some of them also used reproaches, and abused theman, as crowds of such people usually do. So he habited a greatnumber of his soldiers in their habit, who carried daggers undertheir garments, and sent them to a place where they mightsurround them. So he bid the Jews himself go away; but they boldly casting reproaches upon him, he gave the soldiers that signal which had been beforehand agreed on; who laid upon themmuch greater blows than Pilate had commanded them, and equallypunished those that were tumultuous, and those that were not; nordid they spare them in the least: and since the people wereunarmed, and were caught by men prepared for what they wereabout, there were a great number of them slain by this means, andothers of them ran away wounded. And thus an end was put to this sedition.

Reference to Jesus

3. Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it belawful to call him a man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, ateacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drewover to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. Hewas [the] Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of theprincipal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, (9)those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for heappeared to them alive again the third day; (10) as the divineprophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderfulthings concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named fromhim, are not extinct at this day.

The Samaritans

Book 18 Chapter4

1. But the nation of the Samaritans did not escape without tumults. The man who excited them to it was one who thought lyinga thing of little consequence, and who contrived every thing sothat the multitude might be pleased; so he bid them to gettogether upon Mount Gerizzim, which is by them looked upon as the most holy of all mountains, and assured them, that when they werecome thither, he would show them those sacred vessels which were laid under that place, because Moses put them there (12) So theycame thither armed, and thought the discourse of the manprobable; and as they abode at a certain village, which wasc alled Tirathaba, they got the rest together to them, and desired to go up the mountain in a great multitude together; but Pilate prevented their going up, by seizing upon file roads with a greatband of horsemen and foot-men, who fell upon those that weregotten together in the village; and when it came to an action,some of them they slew, and others of them they put to flight,and took a great many alive, the principal of which, and also themost potent of those that fled away, Pilate ordered to be slain.

2. But when this tumult was appeased, the Samaritan senate sentan embassy to Vitellius, a man that had been consul, and who wasnow president of Syria, and accused Pilate of the murder of thosethat were killed; for that they did not go to Tirathaba in orderto revolt from the Romans, but to escape the violence of Pilate.So Vitellius sent Marcellus, a friend of his, to take care of theaffairs of Judea, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, to answerbefore the emperor to the accusations of the Jews. So Pilate,when he had tarried ten years in Judea, made haste to Rome, andthis in obedience to the orders of Vitellius, which he durst notcontradict; but before he could get to Rome Tiberius was dead.

Chapter 6

5.And, as afurther attestation to what I say of the dilatory nature of Tiberius, I appeal to this his practice itself; for although he was emperor twenty-two years, he sent in all but two procurators to govern the nation of the Jews, Gratus, and his successor inthe government, Pilate.

Philo of Alexandria

Legatio 299-305 (Translated by E. M. Smallwood, Philonis Alexandini Legatio ad Gaium, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1970)

Pilate was an official who had been appointed procurator of Judaea. With the intention of annoying the Jews rather than of honouring Tiberius, he set up gilded shields in Herod's palace in the Holy City. They bore no figure and nothing else that was forbidden, but only the briefest possible inscription, which stated two things - the name of the dedicator and that of the person in whose honour the dedication was made. But when the Jews at large learnt of this action, which was indeed already widely known, they chose as their spokesmen the king's four sons, who enjoyed prestige and rank equal to that of kings, his other descendants, and their own officials, and besought Pilate to undo his innovation in the shape of the shields, and not to violate their native customs, which had hitherto been invariably preserved inviolate by kings and emperors alike. When Pilate, who was a man of inflexible, stubborn and cruel disposition, obstinately refused, they shouted, `Do not cause a revolt! Do not cause a war! Do not break the peace! Disrespect done to our ancient laws brings no honour to the Emperor. Do not make Tiberius an excuse for insulting our nation. He does not want any of our traditions done away with. If you say that he does, show us some decree or letter or something of the sort, so that we may cease troubling you and appeal to our master by means of an embassy'. This last remark exasperated Pilate most of all, for he was afraid that if they really sent an embassy, they would bring accusations against the rest of his administration as well, specifying in detail his venality, his violence, his thefts, his assaults, his abusive behaviour, his frequent executions of untried prisoners, and his endless savage ferocity. So, as he was a spiteful and angry person, he was in a serious dilemma; for he had neither the courage to remove what he had once set up, nor the desire to do anything which would please his subjects, but at the same time he was well aware of Tiberius' firmness on these matters. When the Jewish officials saw this, and realized that Pilate was regretting what he had done, although he did not wish to show it, they wrote a letter to Tiberius, pleading their case as forcibly as they could. What words, what threats Tiberius uttered against Pilate when he read it! It would be superfluous to describe his anger, although he was not easily moved to anger, since his reaction speaks for itself. For immediately, without even waiting until the next day, he wrote to Pilate, reproaching and rebuking him a thousand times for his new-fangled audacity and telling him to remove the shields at once and have them taken from the capital to the coastal city of Caesarea (the city named Sebaste after your great-grandfather), to be dedicated in the temple of Augustus. This was duly done. In this way both the honour of the emperor and the traditional policy regarding Jerusalem were alike preserved.

The Edict of Augustus

Edict of Augustus on Jewish Rights, 1 BCE

Caesar Augustus, pontifex maximus, holding the tribunician power, proclaims: Since the nation of the Jews and Hyrcanus, their high priest, have been found grateful to the people of the Romans, not only in the present but also in the past, and particularly in the time of my father, Caesar, imperator, it seems good to me and to my advisory council, according to the oaths, by the will of the people of the Romans, that the Jews shall use their own customs in accordance with their ancestral law, just as they used to use them in the time of Hyrcanus, the high priest of their highest god; and that their sacred offerings shall be inviolable and shall be sent to Jerusalem and shall be paid to the financial officials of Jerusalem; and that they shall not give sureties for appearance in court on the Sabbath or on the day of preparation before it after the ninth hour. But if anyone is detected stealing their sacred books or their sacred monies, either from a synagogue or from a mens' apartment, he shall be considered sacrilegious and his property shall be brought into the public treasury of the Romans.

Strabo's view of the jews

Strabo, The Geography, Book XVI.ii.34-38, 40, 46, c. 22 CE

These districts (of Jerusalem and Joppa) lie towards the north; they are inhabited generally, and each place in particular, by mixed tribes of Egyptians, Arabians, and Phoenicians. Of this description are the inhabitants of Galilee, of the plain of Jericho, and of the territories of Philadelphia and Samaria, surnamed Sebaste by Herod; but though there is such a mixture of inhabitants, the report most credited, among many things believed respecting the temple and the inhabitants of Jerusalem, is that the Egyptians were the ancestors of the present Jews. An Egyptian priest named Moses, who possessed a portion of the country called Lower Egypt, being dissatisfied with the established institutions there, left it and came to Judea with a large body of people who worshiped the Divinity. He declared and taught that the Egyptians and Africans entertained erroneous sentiments, in representing, the Divinity under the likeness of wild beasts and cattle of the field; that the Greeks also were error in making images of their gods after the human form. For God, said he, may be this one thing which encompasses us all, land and sea, which we call heaven, or the universe, or the nature of things. Who, then, of any understanding would venture to form an image of this Deity, resembling anything with which we are conversant? On the contrary, we ought not to carve any images, but to set apart some sacred ground as a shrine worthy of the Deity, and to worship Him without any similitude. He taught that those who made fortunate dreams were to be permitted to sleep in the temple, where they might dream both for themselves and others; that those who practiced temperance and justice, and none else, might expect good, or some gift or sign from the God, from time to time.

By such doctrine Moses persuaded a large body of right-minded persons to accompany him to the place where Jerusalem now stands. He easily obtained possession of it as the spot was not such as to excite jealousy, nor for which there could be any fierce contention; for it is rocky, and, although well supplied with water, it is surrounded by a barren and waterless territory. The space within the city is 60 stadia in circumference, with rock underneath the surface. Instead of arms, he taught that their defense was in their sacred things and the Divinity, for whom he was desirous of finding a settled place, promising to the people to deliver such a kind of worship and religion as should not burden those who adopted it with great expense, nor molest them with so-called divine possessions, nor other absurd practices. Moses thus obtained their good opinion, and established no ordinary kind of government. All the nations around willingly united themselves to him, allured by his discourses and promises.

His successors continued for some time to observe the same conduct, doing justly, and worshipping God with sincerity. Afterwards superstitious persons were appointed to the priesthood, and then tyrants. From superstition arose abstinence from flesh, from the eating of which it is now the custom to refrain, circumcision, cliterodectomy, and other practices which the people observe. The tyrannical government produced robbery; for the rebels plundered both their own and the neighboring countries. Those also who shared in the government seized upon the property of others, and ravaged a large part of Syria and of Phoenicia. Respect, however, was paid to the Acropolis [Zion, or the Temple Mount in Jerusalem]; it was not abhorred as the seat of tyranny, but honoured and venerated as a temple. . . .Such was Moses and his successors; their beginning was good, but they degenerated.

When Judaea openly became subject to a tyrannic government, the first person who exchanged the title of priest for that of king was Alexander [Alexander Jannaeus]. His sons were Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. While they were disputing the succesion to the kingdom, Pompey came upon them by surprise, deprived them of their power, and destroyed their fortress first taking Jerusalem itself by storm [63 B.C.]. It was a stronghold situated on a rock, well-fortified and well-supplied with water within, but externally entirely parched with drought. A ditch was cut in the rock, 60 feet in depth, and in width 250 feet. On the wall of the temple were built towers, constructed of the materials procured when the ditch was excavated. The city was taken, it is said, by waiting for the day of fast, on which the Jews were in the habit of abstaining from all work. Pompey, availing himself of this, filled up the ditch, and threw bridges over it. He gave orders to raze all the walls, and he destroyed, as far as was in his power, the haunts of the robbers and the treasure-holds of the tyrants. Two of these forts, Thrax and Taurus, were situated in the passes leading to Jericho. Others were Alexandrium, Hyrcanium, Machaerus, Lysias, and those about Philadelphia, and Scythopolis nearGalilee.

Pompey curtailed the territory which had been forcibly appropriated by the Jews, and assigned to Hyrcanus the priesthood. Some time afterwards, Herod, of the same family, and a native of the country, having surreptitiously obtained the priesthood, distinguished himself so much above his predecessors, particularly in his intercourse, both civil and political, with the Romans, that he received the title and authority of king, first from Antony, and afterwards from Augustus Caesar. He put to death some of his sons, on the pretext of their having conspired against him; other sons he left at his death [in 4 B.C.] to succeed him, and assigned to each portions of his kingdom. Caesar bestowed upon the sons also of Herod marks of honor, as also upon their sister Salome, and on her daughter Berenice too. The sons were unfortunate, and were publicly accused. One of them [Archelaus] died in exile among the Galatae Allobroges, whose country [Vienne, south of Lyons in France] was assigned for his abode. The others, by great interest and solicitation, but with difficulty, obtained leave to return to their own country, each with his tetrarchy restored to him.

Tacitus' hilarious view of the Jews

From the Histories

Book Five (1 -13)—The Jews1.

At the beginning of the same year (1) Titus Caesar, who had been selected by his father to complete the conquest of Judaea and already enjoyed a reputation as a general when Vespasian and he began to be talked of, received added support and recognition, as provinces and armies vied in displaying their enthusiasm. He was anxious to live up to his new position by cutting a fine figure and showing enterprise in arms. His polite and affable manners gained him devoted followers. In military duties and on the march he often mixed with the ordinary soldiers without sacrificing the respect due to a commanding officer.

Awaiting him in Judaea were three legions that had long served under Vespasian — the Fifth, Tenth and Fifteenth. The emperor also allotted him the Twelfth from Syria and the drafts from the Twenty-Second and the Third brought up from Alexandria. He was attended by twenty cohorts of allied infantry and eight regiments of cavalry, as well as by the two kings Agrippa and Sohaemus and the supporting forces offered by King Antiochus. (2) Then there were strong levies of Arabs, who felt for the Jews the hatred common between neighbours, and many individual adventurers from Rome and Italy who for various reasons hoped to ingratiate themselves with an emperor whose ear might still be gained. This then was the army with which Titus entered enemy territory. (3) He advanced in an orderly fashion, maintaining good reconnaissance and a state of readiness for battle, and encamped at no great distance from Jerusalem.

2. As I am now to record the death-agony of a famous city, it seems appropriate to inform the reader of its origins. The Jews are said to have been refugees from the island of Crete who settled in the remotest corner of Libya in the days when, according to the story, Saturn was driven from his throne by the aggression of Jupiter. This is a deduction from the name 'Judaei' by which they became known: the word is to be regarded as a barbarous lengthening of 'Idaei', the name of the people dwelling around the famous Mount Ida in Crete. A few authorities hold that in the reign of Isis the surplus population of Egypt was evacuated to neighbouring lands under the leadership of Hierosolymus and Judas. Many assure us that the Jews are descended from those Ethiopians who were driven by fear and hatred to emigrate from their home country when Cepheus was king. There are some who say that a motley collection of landless Assyrians occupied a part of Egypt, and then built cities of their own, inhabiting the lands of the Hebrews and the nearer parts of Syria. Others again find a famous ancestry for the Jews in the Solymi who are mentioned with respect in the epics of Homer: this tribe is supposed to have founded Jerusalem(4) and named it after themselves.

3. Most authorities, however, agree on the following account. The whole of Egypt was once plagued by a wasting disease which caused bodily disfigurement. So Pharaoh Bocchoris(5) went to the oracle of Hammon to ask for a cure, and was told to purify his kingdom by expelling the victims to other lands, as they lay under a divine curse. Thus a multitude of sufferers was rounded up, herded together, and abandoned in the wilderness. Here the exiles tearfully resigned themselves to their fate. But one of them, who was called Moses, urged his companions not to wait passively for help from god or man, for both had deserted them: they should trust to their own initiative and to whatever guidance first helped them to extricate themselves from their present plight. They agreed, and started off at random into the unknown. But exhaustion set in, chiefly through lack of water, and the level plain was already strewn with the bodies of those who had collapsed and were at their last gasp when a herd of wild asses left their pasture and made for the shade of a wooded crag. Moses followed them and was able to bring to light a number of abundant channels of water whose presence he had deduced from a grassy patch of ground. This relieved their thirst. They travelled on for six days without a break, and on the seventh they expelled the previous inhabitants of Canaan, took over their lands and in them built a holy city and temple.

4. In order to secure the allegiance of his people in the future, Moses prescribed for them a novel religion quite different from those of the rest of mankind. Among the Jews all things are profane that we hold sacred; on the other hand they regard as permissible what seems to us immoral. In the innermost part of the Temple, they consecrated an image of the animal which had delivered them from their wandering and thirst, choosing a ram as beast of sacrifice to demonstrate, so it seems, their contempt for Hammon. (6) The bull is also offered up, because the Egyptians worship it as Apis. They avoid eating pork in memory of their tribulations, as they themselves were once infected with the disease to which this creature is subject. (7) They still fast frequently as an admission of the hunger they once endured so long, and to symbolize their hurried meal the bread eaten by the Jews is unleavened. We are told that the seventh day was set aside for rest because this marked the end of their toils. In course of time the seductions of idleness made them devote every seventh year to indolence as well. Others say that this is a mark of respect to Saturn, either because they owe the basic principles of their religion to the Idaei, who, we are told, were expelled in the company of Saturn and became the founders of the Jewish race, or because, among the seven stars that rule mankind, the one that describes the highest orbit and exerts the greatest influence is Saturn. A further argument is that most of the heavenly bodies complete their path and revolutions in multiples of seven.

5. Whatever their origin, these observances are sanctioned by their antiquity. The other practices of the Jews are sinister and revolting, and have entrenched themselves by their very wickedness. Wretches of the most abandoned kind who had no use for the religion of their fathers took to contributing dues and free-will offerings to swell the Jewish exchequer; and other reasons for their increasing wealth may be found in their stubborn loyalty and ready benevolence towards brother Jews. But the rest of the world they confront with the hatred reserved for enemies. They will not feed or inter-marry with gentiles. Though a most lascivious people, the Jews avoid sexual intercourse with women of alien race. Among themselves nothing is barred. They have introduced the practice of circumcision to show that they are different from others. Proselytes to Jewry adopt the same practices, and the very first lesson they learn is to despite the gods, shed all feelings of patriotism, and consider parents, children and brothers as readily expendable. However, the Jews see to it that their numbers increase. It is a deadly sin to kill a born or unborn child, and they think that eternal life is granted to those who die in battle or execution—hence their eagerness to have children, and their contempt for death. Rather than cremate their dead, they prefer to bury them in imitation of the Egyptian fashion, and they have the same concern and beliefs about the world below. But their conception of heavenly things is quite different. The Egyptians worship a variety of animals and half-human, half-bestial forms, whereas the Jewish religion is a purely spiritual monotheism. They hold it to be impious to make idols of perishable materials in the likeness of man: for them, the Most High and Eternal cannot be portrayed by human hands and will never pass away. For this reason they erect no images in their cities, still less in their temple. Their kings are not so flattered, the Roman emperors not so honoured. However, their priests used to perform their chants to the flute and drums, crowned with ivy, and a golden vine was discovered in the Temple; and this has led some to imagine that the god thus worshipped was Prince Liber, (8) the conqueror of the East. But the two cults are diametrically opposed. Liber founded a festive and happy cult: the Jewish belief is paradoxical and degraded.

6. Their country and its limits are bounded on the east by Arabia, on the south by Egypt, and on the west by Phoenicia and the sea; of the north they have a distant view on the side towards Syria. The health of the Jews is good, and their physique sturdy. A dry climate and a fertile soil enable them to grow all the crops familiar to us, and in addition, balsam and palm. While palm-groves are notable for height and beauty, the balsam is a small tree. From time to time its branches swell, and if a steel knife is applied to them, the tubes which convey the sap receive a shock; so an incision is made with a fragment of stone or a potsherd, the sap being put to medicinal uses. The highest mountain to which Palestine rises is Lebanon, which, surprisingly enough in this semi-tropical climate, is thickly wooded and keeps unfalteringly its covering of snow. Its slopes feed the tumbling waters of the Jordan. This river does not empty itself into the Mediterranean, but flows through two lakes without losing its identity until it is finally absorbed in a third. This third lake resembles a sea in the vast extent of its circumference, but its water is even nastier to the taste, and unhealthy exhalations cause disease among those who live on its banks. Never ruffled by the wind, it admits the presence of neither fish nor water-fowl. The water if water it be—sustains objects thrown upon it as if it were solid, and swimmers and non-swimmers find it equally buoyant. At a fixed season of the year the lake discharges bitumen. Experience teaches every skill, and has shown men how to gather this substance too. In its natural state a black liquid, it solidifies when sprinkled with vinegar, and floats on the surface of the water. Those who have the job of gathering the bitumen take hold of it with their hands ant haul it on deck. Thereupon it follows automatically in a continuous stream which fills the boat until it is severed. But to sever it is quite impossible with any tool of bronze or iron, though it shuns blood or a cloth contaminated with a woman's menses. This is the story told by ancient writers; but those who know the locality personally say that the floating masses of bitumen are propelled by hand over the water and dragged on land. Then, after it has dried out on the hot soil or in the blazing sun, it can be cut up with axes and wedges as if it were timber or stone.

7. Not far from the Dead Sea is a plain which tradition says was consumed by lightning, though it was once fruitful and supported great and populous cities. (9) It seems that the ruins of these cities can still be traced, and that the very earth looks scorched and has lost its fertility. All natural vegetation and all crops sown by the hand of man, no matter whether in the blade, in the flower, or apparently fully developed, are blackened and insubstantial growths that crumble into a species of powder. Personally I am quite prepared to grant that once-famous cities may have been burnt up by fire from heaven, but I also think that the exhalation from the lake infects the ground and poisons the atmosphere above it, and that this is the reason why the young corn and the harvests of autumn rot: both soil and air are unfavourable. I should add that one of the rivers flowing into the Jewish Sea is the Belius, at whose mouth are sands which are collected and fused with natron to form glass. The beach concerned is small and yet inexhaustible whatever the quantities removed.

8. Much of Judea is thickly studded with villages, and the Jews have towns as well. Their capital is Jerusalem. Here stood their Temple with its boundless riches. Outer defences covered the city; then came the royal palace; and the Temple was enclosed by an inner bulwark. The Jew, and the Jew alone, was allowed to approach the gate of the Temple, and all but priests were denied access within its threshold.While the Assyrian, Median and Persian Empires dominated the East, the Jews were slaves regarded as the lowest of the low. In the Hellenistic period, King Antiochus(10) made an effort to get rid of their primitive cult and hellenize them, but his would-be reform of this degraded nation was foiled by the outbreak of war with Parthia, for this was the moment of Arsaces' insurrection. (11) Then, since the Hellenistic rulers were weak and the Parthians had not yet developed into a great power (Rome, too, was still far away), the Jews established a dynasty of their own. These kings were expelled by the fickle mob, but regained control by force, setting up a reign of terror which embraced, among other typical acts of despotism, the banishment of fellow-citizens, the destruction of cities, and the murder of brothers, wives and parents. The kings encouraged the superstitious Jewish religion, for they assumed the office of High Priest in order to buttress their regime.

9. Roman control of Judaea was first established by Gnaeus Pompey. As victor(12) he claimed the right to enter the Temple, and this incident gave rise to the common impression that it contained no representation of the deity—the sanctuary was empty and the Holy of Holies untenanted. Though the walls of Jerusalem were dismantled, the shrine remained intact. During the civil war which then afflicted the Roman world, the eastern provinces passed under the control of Mark Antony and Judaea was conquered by the Parthian king Pacorus. But the invader was killed by Publius Ventidius, and the Parthians driven back across the Euphrates, while Gaius Sosius brought the Jews to heel. (13) Antony gave the kingdom to Herod, and it was enlarged by the now victorious Augustus. At Herod's death, without waiting for the imperial decision, a certain Simon usurped the title of king. He was dealt with by the governor of Syria, Quintilius Varus, (14) while the Jews were disciplined and divided up into three kingdoms ruled by Herod's sons. (15) In Tiberius' reign all was quiet. Then, rather than put up a statue of Gaius Caesar in the Temple as they had been ordered, the Jews flew to arms, though the rebellion came to nothing owing to the assassination of the emperor. (16) As for Claudius, he took advantage of the death or declining fortunes of the Jewish kings to commit the government of the province to Roman knights or freedmen. One of these, Antonius Felix, played the tyrant with the spirit of a slave, plunging into all manner of cruelty and lust, and marrying Drusilla, grand-daughter of Cleopatra and Antony. This meant that while Claudius was Antony's grandson, Felix was his grandson by marriage.

10. However, the Jews patiently endured their fate until Gessius Florus became governor. (17) During his term of office war broke out. An attempt by Cestius Gallus, governor of Syria, to repress the movement led to indecisive battles and more often to defeats. When Gallus died a natural death—or else committed suicide in mortification—Nero sent out Vespasian. Good luck, a distinguished record and excellent subordinates enabled him within the space of two summers(18) to plant his victorious flag throughout the whole of the flat country and in all the cities except Jerusalem. The next year was preoccupied by the civil war and passed without activity so far as the Jews were concerned, but when peace reigned in Italy foreign affairs once more claimed attention. Rising anger was felt at the fact that by this time only the Jews had failed to submit. It also seemed advisable that Titus should remain at the head of the armies to cope with all the eventualities or mishaps which might confront a new dynasty.

11. So after encamping, as I have said, before the walls of Jerusalem, he paraded his legions in formation before the eyes of the enemy. The Jews, marshalled close under their walls, were in a position to venture further out if they were successful and had a place of refuge ready at hand in case of defeat. Titus sent against them cavalry and some cohorts in battle order, but the encounter was indecisive. Then the enemy gave ground, and for some days thereafter fought a succession of engagements just in front of the gates. Finally, repeated losses drove them behind the walls. The Romans then concentrated on an assault. After all, it seemed beneath them to wait for hunger to do its work on the enemy, and the troops actually asked to be allowed to risk their lives. Some did so because they had real courage, many from mere bravado and a desire for rewards. As for Titus, his imagination dwelt on Rome, wealth and pleasure: it would be long before these dreams were realized if Jerusalem were destined not to fall in the immediate future.But the city occupied a commanding position, and it had been reinforced by engineering works so massive that they might have rendered even a flat site impregnable. Two lofty hills were enclosed by walls skilfully staggered and forming re-entrant angles designed to expose the flank of an attacker. At the edge of the crags was a sharp drop, and a series of towers dominated the scene, 105 feet high where the rising ground helped, and 135 or 120 feet high on the lower contours. (19) These presented an impressive appearance, and to the distant observer seemed to be on a level. There were further walls inside around the palace, and a conspicuous landmark was the lofty castle of Antonia, so named by Herod in honour of Mark Antony.

12. The Temple was like a citadel and had its own walls, which had been even more laboriously and skilfully constructed than the rest. The porticoes around it constituted in themselves an excellent defensive position. To these advantages must be added a spring of never-failing water, chambers cut in the living rock, and tanks and cisterns for the storage of rainwater. Its builders had foreseen only too well that the strange practices of the Jews would lead to continual fighting. Hence everything was available for a siege, however long. Moreover, after Pompey's capture of Jerusalem, fear and experience taught them many lessons. So taking advantage of the money-grubbing instincts of the Claudian period, they purchased permission to fortify the city, and in the days of peace built walls meant for war. Already the home of a motley concourse, its population had been swollen by the fall of the other Jewish cities, for the most determined partisan leaders escaped to the capital, and thereby added to the turmoil. There were three different leaders and three armies. The long outer perimeter of the walls was held by Simon, the central part of the city by John, and the Temple by Eleazar. John and Simon could rely on numbers and equipment, Eleazar on his strategic position. But it was upon each other that they turned the weapons of battle, ambush and fire, and great stocks of corn went up in flames. Then John sent off a party of men, ostensibly to offer sacrifice but in reality to cut Eleazar and his followers to pieces, thus gaining possession of the Temple. Hence-forward, therefore, Jerusalem was divided between two factions, until, on the approach of the Romans, fighting the foreigner healed the breach between them.

13. Prodigies had occurred, but their expiation by the offering of victims or solemn vows is held to be unlawful by a nation which is the slave of superstition and the enemy of true beliefs. In the sky appeared a vision of armies in conflict, of glittering armour. A sudden lightning flash from the clouds lit up the Temple. The doors of the holy place abruptly opened, a superhuman voice was heard to declare that the gods were leaving it, and in the same instant came the rushing tumult of their departure. Few people placed a sinister interpretation upon this. The majority were convinced that the ancient scriptures of their priests alluded to the present as the very time when the Orient would triumph and from Judaea would go forth men destined to rule the world. This mysterious prophecy really referred to Vespasian and Titus, but the common people, true to the selfish ambitions of mankind, thought that this mighty destiny was reserved for them, and not even their calamities opened their eyes to the truth.We are told that the number of the besieged, old and young, men and women, amounted to 600,000. All who could bear arms did so, and more than their numbers warranted had the courage necessary. They displayed an inflexible determination, women no less than men, and the thought that they might be compelled to leave their home made them more afraid of living than of dying.This, then, was the city and nation which Titus faced. Since a headlong assault and the element of surprise were ruled out by the lie of the ground, he proposed to employ earthworks and mantlets. Each legion had its allotted task, and there was a lull in the fighting while they pushed on with the construction of every conceivable device for storming Cities, whether invented long ago or due to the ingenuity of modern times.

Josephus on the pharisees, saducees and essenes pt 3

Wars of the Jews

Book 1, Chapter 5.2
2. And now the Pharisees joined themselves to her, to assist herin the government. These are a certain sect of the Jews thatappear more religious than others, and seem to interpret the lawsmore accurately..

Book 2, Chapter 8

1. And now Archelaus's part of Judea was reduced into a province,and Coponius, one of the equestrian order among the Romans, wassent as a procurator, having the power of [life and] death putinto his hands by Caesar. Under his administration it was that a certain Galilean, whose name was Judas, prevailed with hiscountrymen to revolt, and said they were cowards if they wouldendure to pay a tax to the Romans and would after God submit to mortal men as their lords. This man was a teacher of a peculiar sect of his own, and was not at all like the rest of those their leaders.

2. For there are three philosophical sects among the Jews. The followers of the first of which are the Pharisees; of the second, the Sadducees; and the third sect, which pretends to a severer discipline, are called Essens. These last are Jews by birth, andseem to have a greater affection for one another than the other sects have. These Essens reject pleasures as an evil, but esteem continence, and the conquest over our passions, to be virtue. They neglect wedlock, but choose out other persons children, while they are pliable, and fit for learning, and esteem them to be of their kindred, and form them according to their own manners. They do not absolutely deny the fitness of marriage, and the succession of mankind there by continued; but they guard against the lascivious behavior of women, and are persuaded that none of them preserve their fidelity to one man.

3. These men are despisers of riches, and so very communicative as raises our admiration. Nor is there any one to be found amongthem who hath more than another; for it is a law among them, that those who come to them must let what they have be common to thewhole order, - insomuch that among them all there is no appearance of poverty, or excess of riches, but every one's possessions are intermingled with every other's possessions; and so there is, as it were, one patrimony among all the brethren.They think that oil is a defilement; and if any one of them be anointed without his own approbation, it is wiped off his body;for they think to be sweaty is a good thing, as they do also to be clothed in white garments. They also have stewards appointed to take care of their common affairs, who every one of them haveno separate business for any, but what is for the uses of the mall.

4. They have no one certain city, but many of them dwell in every city; and if any of their sect come from other places, what theyhave lies open for them, just as if it were their own; and they go in to such as they never knew before, as if they had been everso long acquainted with them. For which reason they carry nothing at all with them when they travel into remote parts, though still they take their weapons with them, for fear of thieves. Accordingly, there is, in every city where they live, one appointed particularly to take care of strangers, and to provide garments and other necessaries for them. But the habit and management of their bodies is such as children use who are infear of their masters. Nor do they allow of the change of or of shoes till be first torn to pieces, or worn out by time. Nor do they either buy or sell any thing to one another; but every one of them gives what he hath to him that wanteth it, and receives from him again in lieu of it what may be convenient for himself;and although there be no requital made, they are fully allowed totake what they want of whomsoever they please.

5. And as for their piety towards God, it is very extraordinary;for before sun-rising they speak not a word about profanematters, but put up certain prayers which they have received fromtheir forefathers, as if they made a supplication for its rising. After this every one of them are sent away by their curators, to exercise some of those arts wherein they are skilled, in which they labor with great diligence till the fifth hour. After which they assemble themselves together again into one place; and when they have clothed themselves in white veils, they then bathe their bodies in cold water. And after this purification is over,they every one meet together in an apartment of their own, into which it is not permitted to any of another sect to enter; while they go, after a pure manner, into the dining-room, as into a certain holy temple, and quietly set themselves down; upon which the baker lays them loaves in order; the cook also brings asingle plate of one sort of food, and sets it before every one ofthem; but a priest says grace before meat; and it is unlawful forany one to taste of the food before grace be said. The same priest, when he hath dined, says grace again after meat; and when they begin, and when they end, they praise God, as he that bestows their food upon them; after which they lay aside their[white] garments, and betake themselves to their labors againtill the evening; then they return home to supper, after the samemanner; and if there be any strangers there, they sit down with them. Nor is there ever any clamor or disturbance to pollute their house, but they give every one leave to speak in their turn; which silence thus kept in their house appears to foreigners like some tremendous mystery; the cause of which is that perpetual sobriety they exercise, and the same settled measure of meat and drink that is allotted them, and that such asis abundantly sufficient for them.

6. And truly, as for other things, they do nothing but according to the injunctions of their curators; only these two things aredone among them at everyone's own free-will, which are to assist those that want it, and to show mercy; for they are permitted of their own accord to afford succor to such as deserve it, whenthey stand in need of it, and to bestow food on those that are indistress; but they cannot give any thing to their kindred withoutthe curators. They dispense their anger after a just manner, andrestrain their passion. They are eminent for fidelity, and are the ministers of peace; whatsoever they say also is firmer thanan oath; but swearing is avoided by them, and they esteem itworse than perjury (4) for they say that he who cannot bebelieved without [swearing by] God is already condemned. They also take great pains in studying the writings of the ancients,and choose out of them what is most for the advantage of theirsoul and body; and they inquire after such roots and medicinal stones as may cure their distempers.

7. But now if any one hath a mind to come over to their sect, heis not immediately admitted, but he is prescribed the same method of living which they use for a year, while he continuesexcluded'; and they give him also a small hatchet, and thefore-mentioned girdle, and the white garment. And when he hathgiven evidence, during that time, that he can observe theircontinence, he approaches nearer to their way of living, and ismade a partaker of the waters of purification; yet is he not evennow admitted to live with them; for after this demonstration ofhis fortitude, his temper is tried two more years; and if heappear to be worthy, they then admit him into their society. Andbefore he is allowed to touch their common food, he is obliged totake tremendous oaths, that, in the first place, he will exercisepiety towards God, and then that he will observe justice towardsmen, and that he will do no harm to any one, either of his ownaccord, or by the command of others; that he will always hate thewicked, and be assistant to the righteous; that he will ever showfidelity to all men, and especially to those in authority,because no one obtains the government without God's assistance;and that if he be in authority, he will at no time whatever abusehis authority, nor endeavor to outshine his subjects either inhis garments, or any other finery; that he will be perpetually alover of truth, and propose to himself to reprove those that telllies; that he will keep his hands clear from theft, and his soulfrom unlawful gains; and that he will neither conceal any thingfrom those of his own sect, nor discover any of their doctrinesto others, no, not though anyone should compel him so to do atthe hazard of his life. Moreover, he swears to communicate theirdoctrines to no one any otherwise than as he received themhimself; that he will abstain from robbery, and will equallypreserve the books belonging to their sect, and the names of theangels (5) [or messengers]. These are the oaths by which theysecure their proselytes to themselves.

8. But for those that are caught in any heinous sins, they castthem out of their society; and he who is thus separated from themdoes often die after a miserable manner; for as he is bound bythe oath he hath taken, and by the customs he hath been engagedin, he is not at liberty to partake of that food that he meetswith elsewhere, but is forced to eat grass, and to famish hisbody with hunger, till he perish; for which reason they receivemany of them again when they are at their last gasp, out ofcompassion to them, as thinking the miseries they have enduredtill they came to the very brink of death to be a sufficientpunishment for the sins they had been guilty of.

9. But in the judgments they exercise they are most accurate andjust, nor do they pass sentence by the votes of a court that isfewer than a hundred. And as to what is once determined by thatnumber, it is unalterable. What they most of all honor, after Godhimself, is the name of their legislator [Moses], whom if any oneblaspheme he is punished capitally. They also think it a goodthing to obey their elders, and the major part. Accordingly, iften of them be sitting together, no one of them will speak whilethe other nine are against it. They also avoid spitting in themidst of them, or on the right side. Moreover, they are stricterthan any other of the Jews in resting from their labors on theseventh day; for they not only get their food ready the daybefore, that they may not be obliged to kindle a fire on thatday, but they will not remove any vessel out of its place, nor goto stool thereon. Nay, on other days they dig a small pit, a footdeep, with a paddle (which kind of hatchet is given them whenthey are first admitted among them); and covering themselvesround with their garment, that they may not affront the Divinerays of light, they ease themselves into that pit, after whichthey put the earth that was dug out again into the pit; and eventhis they do only in the more lonely places, which they chooseout for this purpose; and although this easement of the body benatural, yet it is a rule with them to wash themselves after it,as if it were a defilement to them.

10. Now after the time of their preparatory trial is over, theyare parted into four classes; and so far are the juniors inferiorto the seniors, that if the seniors should be touched by thejuniors, they must wash themselves, as if they had intermixedthemselves with the company of a foreigner. They are long-livedalso, insomuch that many of them live above a hundred years, bymeans of the simplicity of their diet; nay, as I think, by meansof the regular course of life they observe also. They contemn themiseries of life, and are above pain, by the generosity of theirmind. And as for death, if it will be for their glory, theyesteem it better than living always; and indeed our war with theRomans gave abundant evidence what great souls they had in theirtrials, wherein, although they were tortured and distorted, burntand torn to pieces, and went through all kinds of instruments oftorment, that they might be forced either to blaspheme theirlegislator, or to eat what was forbidden them, yet could they notbe made to do either of them, no, nor once to flatter theirtormentors, or to shed a tear; but they smiled in their verypains, and laughed those to scorn who inflicted the torments uponthem, and resigned up their souls with great alacrity, asexpecting to receive them again.

11. For their doctrine is this: That bodies are corruptible, andthat the matter they are made of is not permanent; but that thesouls are immortal, and continue for ever; and that they come outof the most subtile air, and are united to their bodies as toprisons, into which they are drawn by a certain naturalenticement; but that when they are set free from the bonds of theflesh, they then, as released from a long bondage, rejoice andmount upward. And this is like the opinions of the Greeks, thatgood souls have their habitations beyond the ocean, in a regionthat is neither oppressed with storms of rain or snow, or withintense heat, but that this place is such as is refreshed by thegentle breathing of a west wind, that is perpetually blowing fromthe ocean; while they allot to bad souls a dark and tempestuousden, full of never-ceasing punishments. And indeed the Greeksseem to me to have followed the same notion, when they allot theislands of the blessed to their brave men, whom they call heroesand demi-gods; and to the souls of the wicked, the region of theungodly, in Hades, where their fables relate that certainpersons, such as Sisyphus, and Tantalus, and Ixion, and Tityus,are punished; which is built on this first supposition, thatsouls are immortal; and thence are those exhortations to virtueand dehortations from wickedness collected; whereby good men arebettered in the conduct of their life by the hope they have ofreward after their death; and whereby the vehement inclinationsof bad men to vice are restrained, by the fear and expectationthey are in, that although they should lie concealed in thislife, they should suffer immortal punishment after their death.These are the Divine doctrines of the Essens (6) about the soul,which lay an unavoidable bait for such as have once had a tasteof their philosophy.

12. There are also those among them who undertake to foretellthings to come, (7) by reading the holy books, and using severalsorts of purifications, and being perpetually conversant in thediscourses of the prophets; and it is but seldom that they missin their predictions.

13. Moreover, there is another order of Essens, (8) who agreewith the rest as to their way of living, and customs, and laws,but differ from them in the point of marriage, as thinking thatby not marrying they cut off the principal part of human life,which is the prospect of succession; nay, rather, that if all menshould be of the same opinion, the whole race of mankind wouldfail. However, they try their spouses for three years; and ifthey find that they have their natural purgations thrice, astrials that they are likely to be fruitful, they then actuallymarry them. But they do not use to accompany with their wiveswhen they are with child, as a demonstration that they do notmany out of regard to pleasure, but for the sake of posterity.Now the women go into the baths with some of their garments on,as the men do with somewhat girded about them. And these are thecustoms of this order of Essens.

14. But then as to the two other orders at first mentioned, the Pharisees are those who are esteemed most skillful in the exactexplication of their laws, and introduce the first sect. Theseascribe all to fate [or providence], and to God, and yet allow,that to act what is right, or the contrary, is principally in thepower of men, although fate does co-operate in every action. They say that all souls are incorruptible, but that the souls of goodmen only are removed into other bodies, - but that the souls ofbad men are subject to eternal punishment. But the Sadducees arethose that compose the second order, and take away fate entirely,and suppose that God is not concerned in our doing or not doingwhat is evil; and they say, that to act what is good, or what isevil, is at men's own choice, and that the one or the otherbelongs so to every one, that they may act as they please. They also take away the belief of the immortal duration of the soul,and the punishments and rewards in Hades. Moreover, the Pharisees are friendly to one another, and are for the exercise of concord,and regard for the public; but the behavior of the Sadducees onetowards another is in some degree wild, and their conversationwith those that are of their own party is as barbarous as if theywere strangers to them. And this is what I had to say concerning the philosophic sects among the Jews.

josephus on the pharisees, saducees and essenes pt 2

Antiquities of the Jews, Chapter 2.4

...For there was a certain sect of men that were Jews, who valued themselves highly upon the exact skill they had in the law oftheir fathers, and made men believe they were highly favored byGod, by whom this set of women were inveigled. These are thosethat are called the sect of the Pharisees, who were in a capacityof greatly opposing kings. A cunning sect they were, and soonelevated to a pitch of open fighting and doing mischief. Accordingly, when all the people of the Jews gave assurance oftheir good-will to Caesar, and to the king's government, thesevery men did not swear, being above six thousand; and when theking imposed a fine upon them, Pheroras's wife paid their finefor them. In order to requite which kindness of hers, since theywere believed to have the foreknowledge of things to come byDivine inspiration, they foretold how God had decreed that Herod's government should cease, and his posterity should bedeprived of it; but that the kingdom should come to her and Pheroras, and to their children.....

Antiquities Book 18, Chapter 1.2

2. The Jews had for a great while had three sects of philosophy peculiar to themselves; the sect of the Essens, and the sect of the Sadducees, and the third sort of opinions was that of those called Pharisees; of which sects, although I have already spoken in the second book of the Jewish War, yet will I a little touchupon them now.

3. Now, for the Pharisees, they live meanly, and despise delicacies in diet; and they follow the conduct of reason; andwhat that prescribes to them as good for them they do; and theythink they ought earnestly to strive to observe reason's dictatesfor practice. They also pay a respect to such as are in years; nor are they so bold as to contradict them in any thing whichthey have introduced; and when they determine that all things ared one by fate, they do not take away the freedom from men ofacting as they think fit; since their notion is, that it hath pleased God to make a temperament, whereby what he wills is done, but so that the will of man can act virtuously or viciously. They also believe that souls have an immortal rigor in them, and that under the earth there will be rewards or punishments, accordingas they have lived virtuously or viciously in this life; and thelatter are to be detained in an everlasting prison, but that the former shall have power to revive and live again; on account of which doctrines they are able greatly to persuade the body of the people; and whatsoever they do about Divine worship, prayers, andsacrifices, they perform them according to their direction; insomuch that the cities give great attestations to them on account of their entire virtuous conduct, both in the actions oftheir lives and their discourses also.

4. But the doctrine of the Sadducees is this: That souls die with the bodies; nor do they regard the observation of any thing besides what the law enjoins them; for they think it an instance of virtue to dispute with those teachers of philosophy whom theyfrequent: but this doctrine is received but by a few, yet bythose still of the greatest dignity. But they are able to doalmost nothing of themselves; for when they become magistrates,as they are unwillingly and by force sometimes obliged to be, they addict themselves to the notions of the Pharisees, becausethe multitude would not otherwise bear them.

5. The doctrine of the Essens is this: That all things are best ascribed to God. They teach the immortality of souls, and esteem that the rewards of righteousness are to be earnestly striven for; and when they send what they have dedicated to God into the temple, they do not offer sacrifices (3) because they have more pure lustrations of their own; on which account they are excludedf rom the common court of the temple, but offer their sacrifices themselves; yet is their course of life better than that of other men; and they entirely addict themselves to husbandry. It also deserves our admiration, how much they exceed all other men thataddict themselves to virtue, and this in righteousness; and indeed to such a degree, that as it hath never appeared among anyother men, neither Greeks nor barbarians, no, not for a little time, so hath it endured a long while among them. This is demonstrated by that institution of theirs, which will not suffer any thing to hinder them from having all things in common; so that a rich man enjoys no more of his own wealth than he who hath nothing at all. There are about four thousand men that live inthis way, and neither marry wives, nor are desirous to keep servants; as thinking the latter tempts men to be unjust, and the former gives the handle to domestic quarrels; but as they live by themselves, they minister one to another. They also appoint certain stewards to receive the incomes of their revenues, and ofthe fruits of the ground; such as are good men and priests, whoare to get their corn and their food ready for them. They none ofthem differ from others of the Essens in their way of living, but do the most resemble those Dacae who are called Polistae (4)[dwellers in cities].

6. But of the fourth sect of Jewish philosophy, Judas the Galilean was the author. These men agree in all other things withthe Pharisaic notions; but they have an inviolable attachment to liberty, and say that God is to be their only Ruler and Lord.They also do not value dying any kinds of death, nor indeed do they heed the deaths of their relations and friends, nor can any such fear make them call any man lord. And since this immovable resolution of theirs is well known to a great many, I shall speakno further about that matter; nor am I afraid that any thing I have said of them should be disbelieved, but rather fear, thatwhat I have said is beneath the resolution they show when they undergo pain. And it was in Gessius Florus's time that the nation began to grow mad with this distemper, who was our procurator,and who occasioned the Jews to go wild with it by the abuse ofhis authority, and to make them revolt from the Romans. And these are the sects of Jewish philosophy.

josephus on the pharisees, saducess and essenes

At this time there were three sects among the Jews, who had different opinions concerning human actions; the one was called the sect of the Pharisees, another the sect of the Sadducees, andthe other the sect of the Essens. Now for the Pharisees, (11)they say that some actions, but not all, are the work of fate, and some of them are in our own power, and that they are liable to fate, but are not caused by fate. But the sect of the Essens affirm, that fate governs all things, and that nothing befallsmen but what is according to its determination. And for the Sadducees, they take away fate, and say there is no such thing, and that the events of human affairs are not at its disposal; butthey suppose that all our actions are in our own power, so that we are ourselves the causes of what is good, and receive what is evil from our own folly.

5. However, this prosperous state of affairs moved the Jews toenvy Hyrcanus; but they that were the worst disposed to him were the Pharisees, (28) who were one of the sects of the Jews, as we have informed you already. These have so great a power over the multitude, that when they say any thing against the king, oragainst the high priest, they are presently believed. Now Hyrcanus was a disciple of theirs, and greatly beloved by them. And when he once invited them to a feast, and entertained themvery kindly, when he saw them in a good humor, he began to say tothem, that they knew he was desirous to be a righteous man, and to do all things whereby he might please God, which was the profession of the Pharisees also. However, he desired, that if they observed him offending in any point, and going out of the right way, they would call him back and correct him. On which occasion they attested to his being entirely virtuous; with whichc ommendation he was well pleased. But still there was one of hisguests there, whose name was Eleazar, a man of an ill temper, anddelighting in seditious practices. This man said," Since thou desirest to know the truth, if thou wilt be righteous in earnest, lay down the high priesthood, and content thyself with the civil government of the people," And when he desired to know for whatcause he ought to lay down the high priesthood, the otherreplied, "We have heard it from old men, that thy mother had beena captive under the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes. (29)" Thisstory was false, and Hyrcanus was provoked against him; and allthe Pharisees had a very great indignation against him.

6. Now there was one Jonathan, a very great friend of Hyrcanus's,but of the sect of the Sadducees, whose notions are quitecontrary to those of the Pharisees. He told Hyrcanus that Eleazarhad cast such a reproach upon him, according to the common sentiments of all the Pharisees, and that this would be mademanifest if he would but ask them the question, What punishment they thought this man deserved? for that he might depend upon it, that the reproach was not laid on him with their approbation, ifthey were for punishing him as his crime deserved. So the Pharisees made answer, that he deserved stripes and bonds, butthat it did not seem right to punish reproaches with death. And indeed the Pharisees, even upon other occasions, are not apt tobe severe in punishments. At this gentle sentence, Hyrcanus wasvery angry, and thought that this man reproached him by theirapprobation. It was this Jonathan who chiefly irritated him, andinfluenced him so far, that he made him leave the party of the Pharisees, and abolish the decrees they had imposed on thepeople, and to punish those that observed them. From this source arose that hatred which he and his sons met with from the multitude: but of these matters we shall speak hereafter. What I would now explain is this, that the Pharisees have delivered tothe people a great many observances by succession from their fathers, which are not written in the laws of Moses; and for thatreason it is that the Sadducees reject them, and say that we areto esteem those observances to be obligatory which are in the written word, but are not to observe what are derived from thetradition of our forefathers. And concerning these things it isthat great disputes and differences have arisen among them, whilethe Sadducees are able to persuade none but the rich, and havenot the populace obsequious to them, but the Pharisees have themultitude on their side. But about these two sects, and that ofthe Essens, I have treated accurately in the second book of Jewish affairs.

New Testament external written sources Part 2

The Roman historians

Tacitus
Annals of Imperial Rome

Such indeed were the precautions of human wisdom. The next thing was to seek means of propitiating the gods, and recourse was had to the Sibylline books, by the direction of which prayers were offered to Vulcanus, Ceres, and Proserpina. Juno, too, was entreated by the matrons, first, in the Capitol, then on the nearest part of the coast, whence water was procured to sprinkle the fane and image of the goddess. And there were sacred banquets and nightly vigils celebrated by married women. But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order.

Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man's cruelty, that they were being destroyed.


Pliny, Letters to Emperor Trajan, X, 96. (Re: Christians in Bithynia; Province in Asia Minor)

It is a rule, Sir, which I inviolably observe, to refer myself to you in all my doubts; for who is more capable of guiding my uncertainty or informing my ignorance? Having never been present at any trials of the Christians, I am unacquainted with the method and limits to be observed either in examining or punishing them. Whether any difference is to be made on account of age, or no distinction allotted between the youngest and the adult; whether repentance admits to a pardon, or if a man has once been a Christian it avails him nothing to recant; whether the mere profession of Christianity, albeit without crimes, or only the crimes associated with it are punishable--in all these points I am in great doubt.

In the meantime, the method I have observed towards those who have been denounced to me as Christians is this: I interrogated them whether they were Christians; if they confessed it I repeated the question twice again, adding the threat of capital punishment; if they still persevered, I ordered them to be executed. For whatever the nature of their creed might be, I could at least feel no doubt that contumacy and inflexible obstinacy deserved punishment. There were others also, taken in by the same infatuation, but being citizens of Rome, I directed them to be taken away.

These accusations spread (as is usually the case) from the mere fact of the matter being investigated and several forms of the mischief came to light. A placard was put up without any signature, accusing a large number of persons by name. Those who denied they were, or had ever been Christians, who repeated after me an invocation to the gods, and offered adoration, with wine and frankincense, to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for that purpose, together with those of the gods, and who finally cursed Christ--none of which acts, it is said, those who are really Christians can be forced to do--these I thought it proper to discharge. Others who were named by that informer at first confessed themselves Christians and then denied it; true, they had been of that persuasion but they had quit it, some three years ago, others many years, and a few as much as twenty-five years ago. They all worshipped your statue and the images of the gods and cursed Christ.

They affirmed, however, the whole of their guilt; or their error, was, that they were in the habit of meeting on a certain fixed day before it was light, when they sang in alternate verses a hymn to Christ as to a god, and bound themselves by a solemn oath, not to do any wicked deeds, but never to commit any fraud, theft or adultery, never falsify their word, nor deny a trust when they should be called upon to deliver it up; after which it is their custom to separate, and then reassemble to partake of food--but food of an ordinary and innocent kind. Even this practice, however, they had abandoned after the publication of my edict, by which, according to your orders, I had forbidden political associations. I judged it so much the more necessary to extract the real truth, with the assistance of torture, from two female slaves, who were styled deaconesses, but I could discover nothing more than depraved and excessive superstition. I therefore adjourned the proceedings, and sought immediately your counsel. For the matter seemed to me well worth referring to you especially considering the numbers endangered. Persons of all ranks and ages, of both sexes, are and will be involved in the prosecution. For this contagious superstition is not confined to the cities only, but has spread through the villages and rural districts; it seems possible, however, to check and cure it. It appears now that the temples, which had been almost deserted, will be frequented and the sacred festivals, after a long general demand for sacrificial animals, which for some time past have met with few purchasers. It is easy to imagine what multitudes may be reclaimed from this error, if a door be left open to repentance.


(Trajan's reply)

The method you have pursued, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those denounced to you as Christians is extremely proper. It is not possible to lay down any general rule which can be applied as the fixed standard in all cases of this nature. No search should be made for these people; when they are denounced and found guilty they must be punished; with the restriction, however, that when the party denies himself to be a Christian, and shall give proof that he is not by worshipping the gods he shall be pardoned on the ground of repentance even though he may have formerly incurred suspicion. Information without the accuser's name inscribed must not be admitted in evidence against anyone, as it is introducing a very dangerous precedent, and by no means agreeable to the spirit of the age.


Suetonius

"Punishments (By Nero)were also inflicted on the Christians, a sect professing a new and mischievous religious belief"



"As the Jews were making constant disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [Claudius] expelled them from Rome"

New Testament External Written Sources part 1

Josephus

Regarding James brother of Jesus

"And so he convened the judges of the Sanhedrin and brought them a man called James, the brother of Jesus who was called the Christ, and certain others. He accused them of having transgressed the law and delivered them up to be stoned. Those of the inhabitants of the city who were considered the most fair minded and who were strict in observance of the law were offended at this. "

Regarding John the Baptist

Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod's army came from God, but he is not real, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, that was called the Baptist: for Herod slew him, who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness towards one another, and piety towards God, and so to come to baptism; for that the washing [with water] would be acceptable to him, if they made use of it, not in order to the putting away [or the remission] of some sins [only], but for the purification of the body; supposing still that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness. Now when [many] others came in crowds about him, for they were very greatly moved [or pleased] by hearing his words, Herod, who feared lest the great influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise a rebellion, (for they seemed ready to do any thing he should advise,) thought it best, by putting him to death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into difficulties, by sparing a man who might make him repent of it when it would be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod's suspicious temper, to Macherus, the castle I before mentioned, and was there put to death. Now the Jews had an opinion that the destruction of this army was sent as a punishment upon Herod, and a mark of God's displeasure to him. (Whiston Translation)

Regarding Jesus

About this time there lived Jesus, a wise man, if indeed one ought to call him a man. For he was one who performed surprising deeds and was a teacher of such people as accept the truth gladly. He won over many Jews and many of the Greeks. He was the Messiah. And when, upon the accusation of the principal men among us, Pilate had condemned him to a cross, those who had first come to love him did not cease. He appeared to them spending a third day restored to life, for the prophets of God had foretold these things and a thousand other marvels about him. And the tribe of the Christians, so called after him, has still to this day not disappeared.

Jewish Antiquities, 18.3.3

Regarding Theudas, and Judas the Galilean

As in Acts:

Acts 5:33-39 When they heard this, they were enraged and wanted to kill him. But a Pharisee in the council named Gamaliel, a teacher of the law, respected by all the people, stood up and ordered the men to be put outside for a short time. Then he said to them, "Fellow Israelites, consider carefully what you propose to do to these men. For some time ago Theudas rose up, claiming to be somebody, and a number of men, about four hundred, joined him; but he wa killed, and all who followed him were dispersed and disappeared. After him Judas the Galilean rose up at the time of the census and got people to follow him; he also perished, and all who followed him were scattered. So in the present case, I tell you, keep away from these men and let them alone; because if this plan or this undertaking is of human origin, it will fail; but if it is of God, you will not be able to overthrow them -- in that case you may even be found fighting against God."

In Josephus:

Antiquities 20.5.1 97-99

During the time when Fadus was procurator of Judea a certain enchanter named Theudas persuaded a great number of the people to take their belongings with them and follow him to the Jordan River. He told them he was a prophet and that he would, by his own command, divide the river and afford them an easy passage through it. And many were deluded by his words. However, Fadus did not permit them to gain the result of this wildness, but sent a troop of horsemen out against them who, falling upon them unexpectedly, slew many of them, and took many of them captive. They also took Theudas alive, and cut off his head, and carried it to Jerusalem. This was what befell the Jews in the time of Cuspius Fadus's government.

Antiquities 20.5.2 102

And besides this, the sons of Judas of Galilee were now slain. This was the Judas who caused the people to revolt against the Romans when Quirinius came to take an account of Judea, as we have showed in a foregoing book. The names of those sons were James and Simon, who were crucified by order of Alexander.

Regarding The Egyptian

Acts 21:37-38

Just as Paul was about to be brought into the barracks, he said to the tribune, "may I say something to you?" The tribune replied, "Do you know Greek? Then you are not the Egyptian who recently stirred up a revolt and led four thousand of the sicarii out into the wilderness?"

Antiquities 20.8.5 169-172 (War 2.13.5 261)

These deeds of the robbers filled the city with all sorts of impiety. And now conjurers and deceivers persuaded the multitude to follow them into the wilderness, and pretended that they would show them manifest wonders and signs that would be performed by the providence of God. And many that were persuaded suffered the pain of their folly, for Felix brought them back and punished them. At this time there came out of Egypt to Jerusalem a man who said he was a prophet, and advised the multitude of the common people to go along with him to the mountain called the Mount of Olives, which lay a distance of five furlongs from the city. He said that he would show them that at his command the walls of Jerusalem would fall down, through which he promised that he would procure them an entrance into the city. Now when Felix was informed of this he ordered his soldiers to take up their weapons, and with a great number of horsemen and footmen from Jerusalem he attacked the Egyptian and the people that were with him. He slew four hundred of them and took two hundred alive. But the Egyptian himself escaped from the fight and did not appear any more. And again the robbers stirred up the people to make war with the Romans.

The Letter of Mara Bar Serapion

What advantage did the Athenians gain from putting Socrates to death? Famine and plague came upon them as a judgment for their crime. What advantage did the men of Samos gain from burning Pythagoras? In a moment their land was covered with sand. What advantage did the Jews gain from executing their wise king? It was just after that that their kingdom was abolished. God justly avenged these three wise men: the Athenians died of hunger; the Samians were overwhelmed by the sea; the Jews, ruined and driven from their land, live in complete dispersion. But Socrates did not die for good; he lived on in the teaching of Plato. Pythagoras did not die for good; he lived on in the statue of Hera. Nor did the wise king die for good; he lived on in the teaching which he had given (quoted by F. F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? Eerdmans Publishing Co., Fifth Revised Edition, p. 114).

What F.F. Bruce says about the letter:

There is, indeed, in the British Museum an interesting manuscript preserving the text of a letter written some time later than AD 73, but how much later we cannot be sure. This letter was sent by a Syrian named Mara BarSerapion to his son Serapion. Mara Bar-Serapion was in prison at the time, but he wrote to encourage his son in the pursuit of wisdom, and pointed out that those who persecuted wise men were overtaken by misfortune. He instances the deaths of Socrates, 'Pythagoras and Christ:
This writer can scarcely have been a Christian, or he would have said that Christ lived on by being raised from the dead. He was more probably a Gentile philosopher, who led the way in what later became a commonplace-the placing of Christ on a comparable footing with the great sages of antiquity.